Cognitive neuroscientist Steve Fleming has studied metacognition, a form of self-reference that defines what we know, think about, and believe about ourselves. His research has found that there are different stages of our own performance depending on the outcome of a task. Fleming also explored the link between self-reflection and confidence, which he believes explains why some people seem underconfident even when they're doing well. His book, Know Thyself: The Science of Self-Awareness, is out in 2021. Fleming's research also suggests that there is a higher level of uncertainty at the level of confidence in people’s assessment, suggesting that higher-level levels of brain activity could influence confidence.